Twilight on the Nile
How Ancient Egypt was Conquered by a “Mad King” (Part One)
“He immediately ordered his men to unbury the dead Pharaoh and bring the corpse in front of him. He, then, commanded them to whip the dead body, ripe off its hair and humiliate it in every way possible […] He pulled his dagger and, like a maniac, rushed to strike the Apis Bull, aiming at his guts. He ended up wounding his thigh instead. With a hysterical laugh, he turned to the priests, saying “You fools! Are there any gods, dressed in flesh and blood, who can be hurt by iron?” […] He then ordered for the priests to be whipped and for every Egyptian, celebrating the appearance of the sacred Apis Bull, to be instantly killed.” (Herodotus, third book, 216–223)
With these dramatic words, Herodotus — the famous Greek historian — describes the sufferings that the Egyptian people had to endure, under the rulership of king Cambyses II of Persia, a harsh, cruel tyrant, whose vast armies conquered their land in 525 BCE, ending in the most horrific way possible their two and a half thousand years old kingdom. In less than a year Egypt, the almighty pharaonic empire, was in the mercy of a madman, a sadist king, whose only joy was to torture his subjects and whose primary aim was to wipe out the Egyptian civilization from the face of the earth. Is however this description historically accurate? Who was “Cambyses the Mad”, the man who ended the Egyptian kingdom? Was he truly the mad tyrant, Herodotus describes? And most importantly, how did he manage to kneel one of the largest empires, the world had ever seen? Why did Egypt fell so easily to its demise, in a blink of an eye?
To answer these questions, we first need to acquire more information about the man, whose destiny was to destroy Egypt. That man was Kambujiwa II or Cambyses II, the firstborn son of Cyrus the Great. Cyrus was a king who, in just 11 years, attacked and destroyed three large empires in the Middle East. From their ashes emerged the mighty Achaemenid or Persian Empire with him as its leader. From the day he was born, Cambyses had one main aim in his life; to surpass his father’s legacy. This was a common norm in the monarchic government system. The future heir to the throne ought to be remembered as a man greater than his ancestors. However, this comes as a serious challenge when your father is known as the creator of the world’s first superpower, one of the best generals and kings Persia ever had and has the eponym “Great”…
Cambyses spent his entire youth, being trained for the day he would inherit the Persian throne. Being the prince, he was charged with ruling Babylon, the empire’s most valuable region at the time. With a history more than a thousand years old, Babylon was the empire’s economical and cultural center, the Omphalos of the entire Middle East. Cambyses’ rule over Babylon was like a crash test for him. He needed to prove not only to his subjects but also to himself that he was worthy of his father’s legacy. Initially, he must have shown a great resemblance to Cyrus, as he was trying to follow in his footsteps. Copying his liberal policy, he allowed his subjects to practice their religion, customs, and laws. However, there was one incident, described at Nabonidus Chronicle (Livius, 2020), in which Cambyses seems to refuse to attend an important religious ceremony, without bearing his arms, a decision which undoubtedly raised tensions with the city’s powerful priesthood. The fact that he had to, or felt the need to arm himself, might be a sign of distrust, alienation, or even pure hatred between him and his subjects. Perhaps this is the reason, why his name doesn’t reappear in the city’s archives. If he wasn’t unpopular by that time, he sure would have been, following this act of sacrilege.
This incident reveals a lot about Cambyses’ character. He was a good ruler, who, like Cyrus, was keen to adopt liberal policies and take an active part in the lives of his subjects. However, unlike his father, he showed less patience, when he believed that his sovereignty had been challenged. That was his Achilles’ heel.
When the priests demanded to lay down his arms, he instantly refused, without considering the possible consequences of his actions. There was always a fear present in his mind. That he was unworthy of his father’s legacy and his subjects were aware of that. This fear led to a series of paranoid phobias considering the probability of losing his power. He was convinced that showing any sign of weakness, his authority would be questioned. Both Greek and Persian sources show proof of such behavior. The Behistun Inscription (Mark, 2019) and Herodotus’ works (third book, 123) inform us that, when Cambyses became king in 530 B.C.E (or right after the invasion of Egypt according to Herodotus), he had his younger brother, Smerdis, killed to wipe out any possible rivals for the throne. Herodotus also mentions the murder of his wife and sister, sometime after his Egyptian campaign (third book, 224–225). There are two versions of the story, but in both of them, Cambyses murdered his wife, because she dared to compare negatively him with Cyrus. The same reason was the main motive behind another murder. Cambyses killed the son of one of his officers because he believed that the officer did not approve his actions (Herodotus, third book, 225–226). Although these incidents are probably a combined mix of propaganda and myth, they do hide a certain amount of truth. Cambyses was insecure about being a worthy heir to his father and was extremely cruel to the ones who unwittingly or intentionally criticized his deeds.
Under the light of these facts, we can now illuminate the real purpose of Cambyses’ Egyptian campaign. This conquest would be his own legacy, his gift to the Persians. He would be known, as the man who conquered the oldest empire of his time.
Egypt was admired for its power, wealth, and scientific knowledge by the whole ancient world. It is worth noting that by the time of the Classical Greek period (520–323 BCE) Egypt was already considered an ancient civilization! Egyptian doctors, tutors, and priests were known for their professionalism and quality of work and were considered the best of their kind. In our modern-day world, we tend to idealize the works of ancient Greeks and Romans and admire their achievements. Their cultures have been labeled as “classic”, a world that holds the same importance as modern-day brands. When we hear of classic Greek or Roman civilization, we tend to relate them directly to the concept of something superior and ideal, which serves as inspiration for our own deeds.
If we go back in time, we will see that this “classic” label belonged to Egypt. Egypt was the ideal prototype of an advanced civilization. A common practice of the time was for enlightened peoples like scientists, philosophers, and legislators to travel to Egypt, to witness by themselves the glory of its civilization, and gain inspiration and knowledge for their own purposes. Plato, Solon, Herodotus, Pythagoras, Eratosthenes, and Thales of Miletus were some of the most notable personalities who traveled to Egypt to acquire knowledge.
Unfortunately for Egypt though, the golden years of the Egyptian civilization were long gone. This is not to say that Egypt was a shadow of its past self by the time Cambyses invaded. But the empire was for sure much more vulnerable. This vulnerability provided the opportunity for Cambyses to plan his magnum opus, the invasion of Egypt. The man who would conquer Egypt would be considered the sole heir of its enlightened culture. We can draw parallels between the motives of Cambyses, and those of Mehmet the Conqueror, who in 1453 CE took Constantinople and considered himself and his people, the Ottomans, as the heirs of the roman empire or behind the similar motives of the Goths, Lombards, and Franks, who after settling and occupying the lands of the Western Roman Empire, were seen as guardians of its legacy and patrons of Christianity.
Just like many others, Cambyses was an admirer of the Egyptian civilization and possessed great knowledge of its culture. Some trusted members of his royal court were Egyptians, such as his personal ophthalmologist, or spent their lives in Egypt, like the Greek mercenary Phanes, who was a former member of pharaoh Ahmose’s II court. Both of them provided Cambyses with valuable information. The conquest of Egypt wasn’t the outcome of a haste unplanned raid, which unexpectedly turned into a full-scale invasion. The Persians didn’t destroy one of the superpowers of the ancient world by mere luck. It was the result of long preparation, years of study, and careful planning. Cambyses spent his entire life, preparing for this moment. He collected tons of useful intel, studied his enemy’s culture, and learned their weaknesses and strengths. Information was even gathered about Egypt’s unique geographical landscape! By showing great cunning he gained the support of key figures, men whose roles were vital for his invasion to succeed. He secured the allegiance of the Arab tribes, who lived near the Sinai desert. This plain of barren land acts as a natural barrier, guarding Egypt’s northern borders. Any foreign army, who dared to cross it, would be perished in a matter of days, due to lack of freshwater depots, combined with the scorching sun. With the aid of the Arabs however, who were accustomed to living in this harsh land, the Persians would be able to cross the desert unharmed.
Then Cambyses turned his attention to the naval part of his invasion. Persians were mountain people. Many of them didn’t even know what “sea” meant or how it looked like. They possessed no knowledge of sailing and some of them couldn’t even swim! The Egyptians on the other hand were excellent sailors, with centuries-old experience in naval conflicts. For his invasion to succeed, Cambyses needed a reliable naval force. It comes as a great surprise that not only he accomplished to do that, but also managed to weaken his enemy’s naval power as well! First, he took by his side Egypt’s only naval ally, Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos, an Ionian Greek island in the eastern Aegean. Greeks were known for their naval supremacy and Polycrates’ ships could pose a serious threat to the Persians. By using an effective combination of bribery and threats, Polycrates was persuaded to forsake his alliance with Egypt. Cambyses also gained the support of Wedjagor Resne, who was the royal admiral of pharaoh Ahmose II. When the invasion began, Resne and his forces would defect and unite with the Persians. For his services, Resne was promised the seat of royal advisor in Cambyses’ court. Power is always a good way to let go any moral hesitation…
Finally, Cambyses had to build the Persian fleet from scratch. For this task, he secured the allegiance of the Phoenicians, a group of people who lived on the shores of the Levant and were known seafarers. Their naval skills could compete with those of the Greeks and far surpass those of the Egyptians. But in addition to the great naval warriors, the Phoenicians were also excellent maritime traders, whose trade network extended throughout the Mediterranean reaching as far as the British Islands! Their financial interests were far more important to them than supporting foreign invasions. So, to gain their support Cambyses signed a pact with them. They would join the Persian Empire as subjects and provided the Achaemenids with their valuable naval services. In return, Cambyses would grand to them special trading rights which would help them outperform their rival trading competitors, the Greeks. The Phoenicians knew that they couldn’t stand against the Persian Empire. Any kind of resistance would result in bloodshed. But if they joined the Persians, they would gain great economical benefits. The crossing to the Indian Ocean from the Red Sea, which was held at the time by the Egyptians, would now belong to their allies, granting them access to new and valuable trading territories. Finally, the Egyptian Pharaohs were known for their philhellenic nature. They used to implement Greeks in their army and navy ranks and also grand to them trading rights in Egypt. Greece was an important trading partner to Egypt. Thus, with its destruction, their Greek competitors would be greatly weakened. The Persians also did not trust the Greeks, who lived in Asia Minor and were subdued to them, because of the same sympathy they showed towards the Egyptians. In view of the above, it was only natural for the Phoenicians to side with the Persians. Thus, out of nowhere, Cambyses not only eliminated his enemy’s naval superiority by cutting him off his allies but also created a huge naval force for his own, consisting of the best sailors in the Mediterranean!
The Egyptians knew that it was only a matter of time before their northern neighbors decided to invade. But they didn’t consider them a great threat. No enemy army could cross the Sinai desert unharmed. Their armies were large, well-supplied, and known for their professionalism. Most importantly, Egypt and her allies controlled the sea. Even if Cambyses managed somehow to reach Egypt and defeat Pharaoh’s forces, he still needed supplies, which will be coming from the sea. The Egyptians were confident and ready to fight for their survival. Little did they know that Cambyses’ energies were slowly weakening them, to the point of losing every possible advantage they had. Year after year they were losing a war, which hadn’t even started. By the time the invasion began in 525 BCE and the first Persian soldiers started marching at Sinai, Egypt was already doomed…
END OF PART ONE
SOURCHES
Herodotus, (2005), Η Ιστορία των Περσικών Πολέμων, Athens, Oceanida publications
Joshua J. Mark, (2019), Behistun Inscription, available at https://www.ancient.eu/Behistun_Inscription/, (last access; 08/03/2021)
Joshua J. Mark, (2018), Phoenicia, available at https://www.ancient.eu/phoenicia/, (last access; 08/03/2021)
Livius, (2020), ABC 7 (Nabonidus Chronicle), available at https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-7-nabonidus-chronicle/, (last access; 08/03/2021)
Matt Waters, (2014), Ancient Persia; a Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire 550–330 BCE, Cambridge University Press
